Subtle direction or collegial support?
A mathematics teacher’s visual attention to teaching partners
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31129/LUMAT.13.1.2478Keywords:
Co-teaching, eye-tracking, mixed-methods, Mathematics Education, interaction in the classroomAbstract
Co-teaching can benefit learning and well-being of all students in inclusive classrooms. In Finland, co-teaching is a pivotal method of support for students with special needs in learning mathematics, but the outcomes are dependent on the quality of co-teaching. However, little is known about how effective co-teaching is situationally constructed in classrooms. The aim of this study was to pilot the approach to investigate the patterns of teaching partners’ interaction in mathematics education. This mixed-method case study charts visual attention between teaching partners in mathematics education. The data was collected with mobile eye tracking in four mathematics lessons with the same mathematics teacher and his seventh-grade students. This study provides introductory information on how a mathematics teacher attends to the co-teaching partners during instruction with short glances during mathematics teacher’s instruction, and long dwells when listening to the teaching partner. Our findings indicate that teacher’s attention to the teaching partners was relative to the pedagogical and interactional situations and often took place during moments with emotional triggers to the teacher.
References
Banfield, J. D., & Raftery, A. E. (1993). Model-Based Gaussian and Non-Gaussian Clustering. Biometrics, 49(3), 803–821. https://doi.org/10.2307/2532201
Bower, J. M., & Carroll, A. (2017). Capturing real-time emotional states and triggers for teachers through the teacher wellbeing web-based application t*: A pilot study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 65, 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.03.015
Burić, I., & Frenzel, A. C. (2019). Teacher anger: New empirical insights using a multi-method approach. Teaching and Teacher Education, 86, 102895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102895
Carty, A., & Farrell, A. M. (2018). Co‐teaching in a mainstream post‐primary mathematics classroom: An evaluation of models of co‐teaching from the perspective of the teachers. Support for Learning, 33(2), 101–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9604.12198
Chaudhuri, S., Muhonen, H., Pakarinen, E., & Lerkkanen, M.-K. (2022). Teachers’ Focus of Attention in First-grade Classrooms: Exploring Teachers Experiencing Less and More Stress Using Mobile Eye-tracking. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 66(6), 1076–1092. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2021.1958374
Chi, M. T. H. (2006). Two approaches to the study of experts’ characteristics. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, J. Feltovich, & R. R. Hoyman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 21–31). Cambridge University Press.
Cook, S. C., Mcduffie-Landrum, K. A., Oshita, L., & Cook, B. G. (2017). Co-Teaching for Students with Disabilities. In J. M. Kauffman, D. P. Hallahan, & P. C. Pullen (Eds.), Handbook of Special Education (2nd ed., pp. 233–248). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315517698-20
Dessus, P., Cosnefroy, O., & Luengo, V. (2016). “Keep Your Eyes on ’em all!”: A Mobile Eye-Tracking Analysis of Teachers’ Sensitivity to Students. In K. Verbert, M. Sharples, & T. Klobučar (Eds.), Adaptive and Adaptable Learning (Vol. 9891, pp. 72–84). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45153-4_6
Dindar, M., Malmberg, J., Järvelä, S., Haataja, E., & Kirschner, P. A. (2020). Matching self-reports with electrodermal activity data: Investigating temporal changes in self-regulated learning. Education and Information Technologies, 25(3), 1785–1802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-10059-5
Finnish National Agency for Education. (2014). National core curriculum for basic education. https://www.oph.fi/sites/default/files/documents/perusopetuksen_opetussuunnitelman_perusteet_2014.pdf
Galley, N., Betz, D., & Biniossek, C. (2015). Fixation durations – why are they so highly variable? In T. Heinen (Ed.), Advances in Visual Perception Research (pp. 83–106). Nova Science Publishers.
Haataja, E., Garcia Moreno-Esteva, E., Salonen, V., Laine, A., Toivanen, M., & Hannula, M. S. (2019). Teacher’s visual attention when scaffolding collaborative mathematical problem solving. Teaching and Teacher Education, 86, 102877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102877
Haataja, E. S. H. (2021). Understanding the role of gaze in momentary teacher-student scaffolding interaction during collaborative problem solving [Doctoral dissertation, University of Helsinki]. http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-51-6947-1
Haataja, E. S. H., Koskinen-Salmia, A., Salonen, V., Toivanen, M., & Hannula, M. S. (2024). Student visual attention during group instruction phases in collaborative geometry problem solving. Educational Studies in Mathematics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-024-10337-1
Haataja, E., Salonen, V., Laine, A., Toivanen, M., & Hannula, M. S. (2021). The Relation Between Teacher-Student Eye Contact and Teachers’ Interpersonal Behavior During Group Work: A Multiple-Person Gaze-Tracking Case Study in Secondary Mathematics Education. Educational Psychology Review, 33(1), 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09538-w
Haataja, E., Toivanen, M., Laine, A., & Hannula, M. S. (2019). Teacher-student eye contact during scaffolding collaborative mathematical problem-solving. Lumat: International Journal of Math, Science and Technology Education, 7(2), 9–26. https://doi.org/10.31129/LUMAT.7.2.350
Hannula, M. S., Haataja, E., Löfström, E., Garcia Moreno-Esteva, E., Salminen-Saari, J. F. A., & Laine, A. (2022). Advancing video research methodology to capture the processes of social interaction and multimodality. ZDM – Mathematics Education, 54(2), 433–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-021-01323-5
Hodgson, L. M., & Wilkie, K. J. (2022). Modelling lessons for more than imitation: Investigating teachers’ reactions and decompositions of unfamiliar practices. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 25(6), 749–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10857-021-09516-1
Iacono, T., Landry, O., Garcia-Melgar, A., Spong, J., Hyett, N., Bagley, K., & McKinstry, C. (2023). A systematized review of co-teaching efficacy in enhancing inclusive education for students with disability. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 27(13), 1454–1468. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2021.1900423
Jardí, A., Webster, R., Petreñas, C., & Puigdellívol, I. (2022). Building successful partnerships between teaching assistants and teachers: Which interpersonal factors matter? Teaching and Teacher Education, 109, 103523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103523
Jarick, M., & Kingstone, A. (2015). The duality of gaze: Eyes extract and signal social information during sustained cooperative and competitive dyadic gaze. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01423
Järvelä, S., Malmberg, J., Haataja, E., Sobocinski, M., & Kirschner, P. A. (2021). What multimodal data can tell us about the students’ regulation of their learning process? Learning and Instruction, 72, 101203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.04.004
Järvenoja, H., Malmberg, J., Törmänen, T., Mänty, K., Haataja, E., Ahola, S., & Järvelä, S. (2020). A Collaborative Learning Design for Promoting and Analyzing Adaptive Motivation and Emotion Regulation in the Science Classroom. Frontiers in Education, 5, 111. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.00111
Jenßen, L. (2021). What affects the arrogant, proud or ashamed pre-service teacher in mathematics? Effects of social comparison, gender and self-concept on self-conscious emotions. Social Psychology of Education, 24(5), 1105–1123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09655-6
King-Sears, M. E., & Strogilos, V. (2020). An exploratory study of self-efficacy, school belongingness, and co-teaching perspectives from middle school students and teachers in a mathematics co-taught classroom. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 24(2), 162–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1453553
Klette, K. (2022). Quality in Nordic Teaching (NCoE) Common QUINT Dataset 2022 (Version 1). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.6381818
Lloyd, G. M., Rice, C. L., & McCloskey, A. V. (2020). Opportunities for professional learning about mathematics instruction: The role of joint work in student-teaching triads. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 23(5), 499–525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10857-019-09439-y
Maag Merki, K., Grob, U., Rechsteiner, B., Rickenbacher, A., & Wullschleger, A. (2022). Preconditions of teachers’ collaborative practice: New insights based on time-sampling data. Frontline Learning Research, 10(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v10i1.911
Määttä, O., McIntyre, N., Palomäki, J., Hannula, M. S., Scheinin, P., & Ihantola, P. (2021). Students in sight: Using mobile eye-tracking to investigate mathematics teachers’ gaze behaviour during task instruction-giving. Frontline Learning Research, 9(4), 92–115. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v9i4.965
Mangiafico, S. S. (2016). Summary and Analysis of Extension Program Evaluation in R (Version 1.20.05, revised 2023) [Computer software]. rcompanion.org/handbook/
McIntyre, N. A., & Foulsham, T. (2018). Scanpath analysis of expertise and culture in teacher gaze in real-world classrooms. Instructional Science, 46(3), 435–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-017-9445-x
McIntyre, N. A., Jarodzka, H., & Klassen, R. M. (2019). Capturing teacher priorities: Using real-world eye-tracking to investigate expert teacher priorities across two cultures. Learning and Instruction, 60, 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.003
McIntyre, N. A., Mulder, K. T., & Mainhard, M. T. (2020). Looking to relate: Teacher gaze and culture in student-rated teacher interpersonal behaviour. Social Psychology of Education, 23(2), 411–431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-019-09541-2
Muehlbacher, F., Hagenauer, G., & Keller, M. M. (2022). Teachers’ Emotion Regulation in the Team-Taught Classroom: Insights Into Teachers’ Perspectives on How to Regulate and Communicate Emotions With Regard to the Team Teaching Partner. Frontiers in Education, 7, 787224. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.787224
Olive, K., Tang, X., Loukomies, A., Juuti, K., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2022). Gendered difference in motivational profiles, achievement, and STEM aspiration of elementary school students. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 954325. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.954325
Onuma, T., Penwannakul, Y., Fuchimoto, J., & Sakai, N. (2017). The effect of order of dwells on the first dwell gaze bias for eventually chosen items. PLOS ONE, 12(7), e0181641. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181641
Opoku, M. P., Mustafa, A., Anwahi, N., Alkatheeri, F., Alsuwaidi, N., Alqutaiti, A., & Belbase, S. (2024). Working as teacher assistants/aides in schools: Understanding experiences in an Arabian context using the wider pedagogical role model. Cogent Education, 11(1), 2319450. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2319450
Orr, S., & Bieda, K. (2023). Learning to elicit student thinking: The role of planning to support academically rigorous questioning sequences during instruction. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10857-023-09603-5
Paju, B., Kajamaa, A., Pirttimaa, R., & Kontu, E. (2022). Collaboration for Inclusive Practices: Teaching Staff Perspectives from Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 66(3), 427–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2020.1869087
Parker, P. D., Martin, A. J., Colmar, S., & Liem, G. A. (2012). Teachers’ workplace well-being: Exploring a process model of goal orientation, coping behavior, engagement, and burnout. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(4), 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.01.001
Pekrun, R. (2006). The Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions: Assumptions, Corollaries, and Implications for Educational Research and Practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 315–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9
Pesonen, H. V., Rytivaara, A., Palmu, I., & Wallin, A. (2021). Teachers’ Stories on Sense of Belonging in Co-Teaching Relationship. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 65(3), 425–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2019.1705902
Praetorius, A.-K., McIntyre, N. A., & Klassen, R. M. (2017). Reactivity effects in video-based classroom research: An investigation using teacher and student questionnaires as well as teacher eye-tracking. Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft, 20(S1), 49–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-017-0729-3
Sharma, U., & Salend, S. (2016). Teaching Assistants in Inclusive Classrooms: A Systematic Analysis of the International Research. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(8), 118–134. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2016v41n8.7
Sloetjes, H., & Wittenburg, P. (2008). Annotation by category - ELAN and ISO DCR. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2008). https://archive.mpi.nl/tla/elan
Spörer, N., Henke, T., & Bosse, S. (2021). Is there a dark side of co-teaching? A study on the social participation of primary school students and their interactions with teachers and classmates. Learning and Instruction, 71, 101393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101393
Strohmaier, A. R., MacKay, K. J., Obersteiner, A., & Reiss, K. M. (2020). Eye-tracking methodology in mathematics education research: A systematic literature review. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 104(2), 147–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-020-09948-1
Sundqvist, C., Björk-Åman, C., & Ström, K. (2023). Co-Teaching During Teacher Training Periods: Experiences of Finnish Special Education and General Education Teacher Candidates. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 67(1), 20–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2021.1983648
Toivanen, M., Lukander, K., & Puolamäki, K. (2017). Probabilistic approach to robust wearable gaze tracking. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.10.4.2
Uzuntiryaki-Kondakci, E., Kirbulut, Z. D., Oktay, O., & Sarici, E. (2022). A Qualitative Examination of Science Teachers’ Emotions, Emotion Regulation Goals and Strategies. Research in Science Education, 52(4), 1131–1155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-020-09986-y
Van De Pol, J., Volman, M., & Beishuizen, J. (2010). Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A Decade of Research. Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), 271–296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9127-6
Van Driel, S., Crasborn, F., Wolff, C. E., Brand-Gruwel, S., & Jarodzka, H. (2021). Exploring preservice, beginning and experienced teachers’ noticing of classroom management situations from an actor’s perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education, 106, 103435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103435
Wakefield, E., Novack, M. A., Congdon, E. L., Franconeri, S., & Goldin‐Meadow, S. (2018). Gesture helps learners learn, but not merely by guiding their visual attention. Developmental Science, 21(6), e12664. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12664
Webster, R., & Blatchford, P. (2013). The educational experiences of pupils with a Statement for special educational needs in mainstream primary schools: Results from a systematic observation study. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 28(4), 463–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2013.820459
Yamamoto, T., & Imai-Matsumura, K. (2013). Teachers’ Gaze and Awareness of Students’ Behavior: Using An Eye Tracker. Comprehensive Psychology, 2, 01.IT.2.6. https://doi.org/10.2466/01.IT.2.6
Zeinstra, L., Kupers, E., Loopers, J., & De Boer, A. (2023). Real-time teacher-student interactions: The dynamic interplay between need supportive teaching and student engagement over the course of one school year. Teaching and Teacher Education, 121, 103906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103906
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Eeva Haataja, Reito Visajaani Salonen
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.